DISSERTATION WHICH FAIRNESS FACTORS MOST INFLUENCE MINORITY PROFESSIONALS TO REMAIN COMMITTED TO AN ORGANIZATION AS EVIDENCED BY A PREDISPOSITION TO DEPART Submitted by Anthony Wade School of Education In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Summer 2007 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3279547 INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3279547 Copyright 2007 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY May 3,2007 WE HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE DISSERTATION PREPARED UNDER OUR SUPERVISION BY ANTHONY W. WADE ENTITLED WHICH FAIRNESS FACTORS MOST INFLUENCE MINORITY PROFESSIONALS TO REMAIN COMMITTED TO AN ORGANIZATION AS EVIDENCED BY A PREDISPOSITION TO DEPART BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING IN PART REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY. Committee on Graduate Work (Please print name under signature) DrC James'TL Banning Dr. Timothy G. Davies, Department Head/Director 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION WHICH FAIRNESS FACTORS MOST INFLUENCE MINORITY PROFESSIONALS TO REMAIN COMMITTED TO AN ORGANIZATION AS EVIDENCED BY A PREDISPOSITION TO DEPART The presence of minority professionals in the workforce ranks is indicative of the organization’s corporate citizenship and its commitment to equal opportunity and diversity. Consequently, factors that affect organizational commitment and retention are of key importance. This mixed study explored the relationship between the attitudes and perceptions of minority professionals as related to fair treatment between themselves and white counterparts, and whether those perceptions influenced minority professionals to remain committed to organizations. The survey was distributed to 122 minority professionals at various events held by professional minority organizations. A concurrent nested design was used in the study, in which a qualitative phase was embedded within a predominantly quantitative study. The instrument survey used was an adaptation of a standardized faculty survey developed by the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) at the University of California at Los Angeles. Returned surveys were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to transform raw data into tables appropriate to the analysis. Qualitative data was analyzed using inductive coding. in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The researcher’s findings suggest that while the majority of respondents feel that they are treated as equitably as their White counterparts, approximately one-third indicated that they were either unsatisfied or neutral on this subject. The most intense issue that the responses highlighted was inequity in advancement. An overwhelming majority of respondents are committed to their organizations, even though they may not always receive fair treatment, and many are unable to leave at this time, regardless of treatment. Private sector employees indicated that they may be more willing to change jobs during the course of their careers as opposed to those in the public sector. From this research, the following recommendations were given: (1). The premise of this study should be extended beyond the convenience sample indicated in this study. (2). Interviews should be conducted with senior organizational management relative to implementing changes altering organizational practices and culture. (3). A separate study could be conducted regarding the effects of generation socialization upon retention, attrition, and tolerance. (4). A study should be conducted that evaluates middle minority managers willingness to stay in an organization. Anthony W. Wade School of Education Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado 80253 Summer 2007 iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. DEDICATION To my incredible parents, Louis Waddell Wade and Mamie Lee McNeil Wade, who, through their words and deeds and everything that they instilled in all of their children, inspired us to go successfully beyond perceived limitations, becoming the realization of their dreams and vision, their living legacy v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I thank God for blessing me and giving me the strength and endurance to complete this journey. All my accomplishments throughout my life have been the result of His blessing and it is through His blessing that I have successfully completed this important milestone in my life . I would like to acknowledge many people and organizations for helping me during my doctoral work. I am extremely grateful for the generosity and support provided by the four organizations who allowed survey administration at their chapter meetings and events and without whom this research would not have been possible. The organizations include the Colorado Chapter of the Conference of Minority Transportation Officials (COMTO-Colorado), the Colorado Association of Black Journalists (CABJ), the African-American Leadership Institute (AALI), and the Colorado Chapter of the National Association of African-Americans in Human Resources (NAAHR-CSC). I am also very grateful for having an exceptional doctoral committee and wish to thank Dr. Gary Geroy, Dr. James Banning, Dr. Raymond Yang and Dr. David Most for their continual support and encouragement. I extend many thanks and an enormous debt of gratitude to my wife, Dr. Dorothy Garrison-Wade, who not supported and believed in me, but who also proof-read multiple versions of all the chapters of this dissertation and provided many critical and vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. constructive suggestions and recommendations to help me improve my research and clarify my arguments. I owe a debt of gratitude to the following individuals for their ongoing input, assistance and support on this journey: Frank Wade, Dr. Mary Davis, James Blue, Ronald Flowers, Bianca Crockett, Dr. Rashida Braggs, Ronald Sparks, P.E., Deborah Sinclair, Kathy Balu, Georganne Chapman, Ed Wakefield, James Ellis, Ritchie and Bruce Hunter, Carla Ladd, Dr. James .Dugan, Phillip Washington, Amani Ali, Linda Williams, Andreas Nearchou, Dr. Cody Golman and Dr. Robert Greene. Finally, this dissertation would not have been possible without the expert guidance of my esteemed advisor and dissertation committee chair, Professor Gary D. Geroy. Not only was he readily available for me, as he so generously is for all of his students, but he always read and responded to the drafts of each chapter of my work more quickly than I could have hoped. His oral and written comments were always extremely perceptive, helpful, and appropriate. Throughout my doctoral work he encouraged me to develop independent thinking and research skills, continually stimulated my analytical thinking and greatly assisted me with scientific writing. Of course, despite all the assistance provided by Professor Geroy and others, I alone remain responsible for the content of the following, including any errors or omissions which may unwittingly remain. vii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION.................................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................................. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................viii LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................xii CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................1 Background/Overview.............................................................................................1 Statement of the Research Problem........................................................................ 2 Research Questions................................................................................................. 2 Definition of Terms................................................................................................. 3 Delimitations........................................................................................................... 3 Limitations.............................................................................................................. 4 Significance of the Study........................................................................................ 4 Researcher’s Perspective........................................................................................ 5 CHAPTER II - REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................................................... 7 Introduction............................................................................................................. 7 Minority Experiences and Perceptions of Organizational Support......................... 7 Organizational Commitment and Expectancy Theory...........................................10 Perceived Organizational Support.........................................................................11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Procedural and Distributive Justice.......................................................................15 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Satisfaction........................................................................17 IS/ES and Socioemotional Needs......................................................................... 20 Similarity-Attraction Paradigm............................................................................. 21 Equity of Treatment.............................................................................................. 22 External Resources and Support........................................................................... 23 Summary............................................................................................................... 25 CHAPTER III - METHODOLOGY................................................................................ 28 Introduction........................................................................................................... 28 Research Design and Rationale............................................................................ 28 Data Collection..................................................................................................... 29 Instrumentation......................................................................................... 30 Participants............................................................................................................ 32 Data Analysis........................................................................................................ 33 Validity and Trustworthiness................................................................................ 34 Ethical Considerations.......................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER IV-PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA.................................... 36 Introduction........................................................................................................... 36 Demographics of the Participants......................................................................... 36 Respondent Organizational Longevity................................................................. 37 Industry Typology..................................................................................... 38 Respondent Pay Ranges........................................................................................ 39 Retention by Industry............................................................................................ 39 ix Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Perceptions and Retention..................................................................................... 40 Analysis by Research Questions........................................................................... 41 Personal Perspectives Regarding the Respondents’ Organization............ 41 Intra-Organizational Relations.................................................................. 42 Demonstrated Organizational Values....................................................... 43 Morale and Future Plans........................................................................... 43 Consequences of Negative Perceptions and Organizational Membership........... 44 Open-Ended Question Responses............................................................. 47 Summary............................................................................................................... 50 CHAPTER V- CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH................................................ 52 Introduction........................................................................................................... 52 Assumptions of the study...................................................................................... 52 Responses to Research Questions......................................................................... 57 General Discussion............................................................................................... 60 Personal Reflections.................................................................................. 61 Recommendations for Further Research............................................................... 62 Summary............................................................................................................... 63 REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 64 APPENDICES.................................................................................................................. 69 Appendix A: Consent to Participate in a Research Study Form.......................... 69 Appendix B: Workplace Satisfaction Survey...................................................... 72 Appendix C: Human Subjects Approval.............................................................. 75 x Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix D: HI00 Application xi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Data Collection Matrix..................................................................................30 Table 2 Sites for Subjects...........................................................................................32 Table 3 Respondents’ Length of Service with their Organizations............................37 Table 4 Organizational Affiliation by Typology........................................................38 Table 5 Respondent Pay Ranges.................................................................................39 Table 6 Cross-tabulation of Industry and Predisposition to Leave.............................40 Table 7 Illustration of Treatment by Race/Ethnicity related to Predisposition to Leave................................................................................ 43 Table 8 Organizational Valuing of Minority Employees/Commitment to Organization................................................................................................. 44 Table 9 Respondents’ Organizational Valuing and Commitment related to Retention...................................................................................................... 46 Table 10 Industry Retention related to Retention.........................................................47 Table 11 Underlying Dynamics to Respondent Perceptions....................................... 48 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background/ Overview In the struggle for industry competitiveness, a stable workforce represents the difference between winning and losing the battle for industry-specific superiority. Thus, the challenge to retain the best and brightest resources has become even more important. In other words, for organizations to remain competitive, a key focus must be placed upon how they retain their most competent and capable professionals. Talented minority professionals normally constitute a small percentage of the workforce in the majority of organizations. However, their presence in the workforce ranks is indicative of the organization’s corporate citizenship and its commitment to equal opportunity and diversity. Since there is a disproportionate attrition of minorities across industry and institutional lines, retention strategies may take many forms. Some retention strategies may be directed to individuals who benefit from information that affects interests and choices in careers. Other retention strategies seek to change organizational culture — the climate of the workplace — that welcomes some, but deters others (Tapia, Chubin, & Lanius, 1999). Consequently, factors that affect organizational commitment and retention are of key importance. 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Statement of Research Problem The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between concern for dimensions of fairness and the propensity for a certain response. This involved an examination of the relationship between the attitudes and perceptions of minority professionals as related to fair treatment between themselves and White counterparts, and whether those perceptions influence minority professionals to remain committed to organizations. This study examined the perceived factors of fair treatment and its influence on the organizational commitment of minority professionals, specifically as evidenced by a predisposition to leave the organization. It was believed that a better understanding by organizational management of the relationship regarding minority employee attitudes involving equity of treatment might increase the retention of minority professionals within organizations. This research has theoretical as well as practical value, which is applicable across industry and organizational lines. Research Questions The following research questions will be addressed in this study: Do minority professionals perceive that there is a difference in the relationship between their personal effort levels and indications of professional success levels versus that of their non-minority counterparts? How do these attitudes and perceptions most influence minority professionals to remain committed to an organization as evidenced by a predisposition to depart? Are the levels and type of perceptions of inequities, which affect retention consistent across organizational typology? 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Definition of Terms A number of key terms are used in this study. The definitions should help to clarify how the terms are used and serve to limit the scope of the study. Minorities. The term, minorities, is defined as males and females of non-White ancestry. Non-White will include Blacks, Hispanics, Asian/Pacific Islander, American Indian, and Alaskan Native. The terms Black and African-American are synonymous. The terms Hispanic, Latino, Latina and Spanish are synonymous. Retention. The term, retention, refers to the ability to retain employees within their respective organizations. Perception. The term, perception, refers to the perspective applied to individuals and/or situations by others, based upon the images and beliefs that one has as a result of their life experiences, whether those perspectives are factual or not. Organizational commitment: The extent to which the individual: (1) accepts and believes in the organization’s goals; (2) is willing to exert effort on behalf of the organization; and (3) wants to continue involvement in the organization. Perceived organizational support (POST The development of global beliefs by employees concerning the extent to which the organization values their contribution and cares about them and their well-being. Delimitations The following delimitations have been placed on this study. 1. No attempt will be made to survey all public and private sector organizations and industries. 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2. Only a sample of professional organizations will be included in this study. This is due to the cost-effectiveness of this approach as opposed to the cost-prohibitive nature of attempting to contact all public and private sector organizations and industries. 3. No attempt will be made to verify the self-disclosure of participants as to their specific racial and ethnic status. This is due to the belief that there will be a greater predisposition for participants to disclose information if the possibility of identification is minimized. 4. This study is not meant to indicate that the results received are indicative of the experiences of all minority professionals and will be representative of the minority professionals who chose to participate in this study. As a result, the findings will be specific to the professional associations and organizations who have allowed access to their membership and events. Limitations The outcome of this study may be affected by the number of minority professionals willing to participate in the study. Additionally, the information received will be representative of the minority professionals who are members of or affiliated with the professional organizations and associations listed in Chapter 3. Significance of the Study The literature review to this point has surfaced very little information regarding the retention of minority professionals as related to attitudes or perceptions of equity of treatment and organizational commitment. Based upon this fact, it is believed that there is an absence of research regarding the topic that is the basis for this dissertation. The research proposed will provide a body of knowledge that may help to retain minority 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. professionals within organizations by addressing the organizational and institutional practices that facilitate the perceptions of inequity among minority professionals. This research should have theoretical as well as practical value. It is applicable across industry and organizational lines because it examines the possible relationship between minority employee perceptions and retention. The significance of this research cannot be overstated because organizations can explore and strategically institute practices, based upon the study’s findings, which may reduce the loss of valuable resources and intellectual capital. That intellectual capital is represented in the form of talented minority professionals who migrate to competitors in the hope that improved equity of treatment will have a commensurate effect upon their career success. Researcher’s Perspective I am aware of my biases and sensitivities regarding the topic. As an African- American who was bom in the Deep South in the 1950s, I experienced Jim Crow conditions and, as a child, drank from segregated fountains. My family was involved in the civil rights movement on a national level starting with Joseph McNeil’s peaceful, non-violent activities reflected in photographs of the Woolworth department store lunch counter sit-in in February 1960. From an early age, I have understood and witnessed prejudice, discrimination and the social injustice associated with both issues. I am a graduate of the Department of Defense’s Equal Opportunity Management Institute, which has also resulted in an increased sensitivity to diversity issues. I have served as a director of regulatory agencies in both my military and civilian career. Prior to my tour as Director of Equal Opportunity Treatment and Human Relations Education 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (EOT/HRE) for U.S. Air Force bases, I experienced racism first-hand at my first assignment in the late 1970s in the Deep South. My friendship with a blond, blue-eyed White woman and fellow Air Force colleague resulted in harassment towards both of us by squadron command personnel. As an EOT/HRE Director, I witnessed racist attitudes and sentiments as well as command actions protecting those individuals during investigations and in seminars that I conducted. As a North Carolina county government Human Relations Commission Director, I directed staff activities involving administration of county government ordinances against discrimination, including investigation and enforcement authority regarding fair employment and housing discrimination. For my actions, I also experienced threatening phone calls and death threats during the same period. I am presently the executive in charge of employment, compensation, equal opportunity treatment, and minority/women business enterprise administration for a quasi-govemmental organization in Colorado. During this time, I have also witnessed minority professionals who have departed my organization as a result of their perception of disparate treatment between themselves and non-minority professionals involving rewards and recognition. Exit interviews indicated that there were attitudes involving inequity in organizational support and valuing that were perceived to be indicative of racist attitudes. As a result of my socialization and professional career, there is great sensitivity to issues of equity and treatment. I understood the necessity of subordinating those biases in support of the objective administration of the research study. 6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction Looking back at the last four decades in the American workplace, it is evident that the valuing diversity movement began as an outgrowth of the civil rights movement to promote representation and fairness in our society (Loden, 1996). However, while equal opportunity and affirmative action opened doors and provided increased access to the world of work for minorities, this access did not guarantee that development and access would also be provided (Loden, 1996). Further, stereotypical assumptions and automatic trait associations affected the way that minorities have been treated inside organizations. (Stockdale & Crosby, 2004). Minority Experiences and Perceptions of Organizational Support While many organizations have aggressively recruited minority professionals, many have not created the infrastructure or environments that would result in those individuals feeling they were being treated equitably or fairly (CABE, 2003). A study conducted by L.T. McGill (2001) suggests that perceptions of advancement opportunities, along with perceptions of fairness in promotions and pay, were significant factors in the decisions of employees of all races to leave their jobs. McGill’s research involves the differences between the perceptions of non-minority management and minority employees with regards to equity of treatment and its relationship to career 7 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. success in the newspaper industry. A meta-analysis of 13 studies conducted from 1989 to 2000 that permitted comparisons between the attitudes of White and non-White journalists disclosed that the issue of advancement opportunities proved far more salient to journalists of color than to White journalists. Moreover, achievement opportunities consistently ranked at or near the top of the list of all factors that might influence the decision of a journalist of color to stay in newspaper industry (McGill, 2001). Even more importantly, the study revealed an amazingly wide gap between the perceptions of African-American journalists and White newsroom managers with respect to issues of advancement. For example, while nearly all of the newsroom managers surveyed (94 %) said that "managers in [their] newsroom show a commitment to retaining and promoting black journalists," only 28 % of journalists affiliated with the National Association of Black Journalists (NABJ) agreed with this opinion. McGill’s study also revealed that 59 % of African-American journalists believed that standards for promotion were higher for them than they were for “other” journalists as compared to 1 % of newsroom managers. Even if upward mobility exists for minority professionals in some organizations, it is difficult to document. Further, there is a persistent perception that non-minority counterparts were and are getting more opportunities to progress and move up the hierarchy quickly. To a number of minority professionals, non-minority counterparts seemed to get hired faster, and much of this was attributed to their relationships with senior non-minority executives (CAF-FCA, 2004). Many minority professionals believed that how quickly an employee gets an offer of employment or upward mobility depends on whether ‘your face fits’ (CABE, 2004). Equity of treatment was a concern 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. for numerous minority employees who perceived that younger White people were overtaking the minority ethnic staff members in terms of upward mobility (CAF-FCA, 2004). Additionally, it was perceived by many minority professionals that they had to be better than their White counterparts to be successful (CAF-FCA, 2004). One interview with a minority professional who left their company was as follows: “Certainly there were others around me who I can say perhaps had less ability - and that does sound a little conceited - but o f a higher grade. And before leaving I spoke to the senior management and just said 7 feel that in order to progress and to be recognized for the work that I have done, and can do, and am capable of, I ’d have to move forward; I have to move on. ’” (CAF-FCA, 2004). Another minority professional who had moved to his own private practice made the following statement: “I couldn ’t move forward, I couldn ’t progress...so for me, wanting to develop as a professional and not wanting to be pigeonholed, I took a conscious decision to move outwards and onwards, and certainly i t’s benefited me. I t’s a small organization that I run here, but I ’ve got the ability to influence things and to take the organization forward” (CAF- FCA, 2004). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Because of their relatively small number, minority professionals have to push themselves forward, to be noticed, to be assertive, to make an immediate impression - although that is not always successful either. A female Asian project manager recalled her perceptions involving equity of treatment in her organization as follows: “land a friend started with the same contractor. We both askedfor pay raises after a period o f time. He got his and I was told the pot was empty. I actually ended up leaving them as I had been on the same wage for one-and-a half years. Obviously, he was White ” (CAF-FCA, 2004). Minorities appear to have different experiences at work than non-minorities. Greenhaus, Parasuraman, & Wormley (1999) surveyed approximately 900 managers and their supervisors in three large organizations. Forty-five (45 %) percent of the managers surveyed were Black who reported being less accepted than their White counterparts. Blacks also reported less career satisfaction and tended to be rated lower than their non­ minority peers. The outcomes of the research led the researchers to wonder what occurs in organizations that results in Blacks experiencing those feelings. Organizational Commitment and Expectancy Theory Commitment is defined as a set of behavioral intentions, such as a desire to remain with the organization, an intention to exert high levels of effort on behalf of the organization and identification with the organization's goals (Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974; Steers, 1977). The antecedents of these intentions are basically positive work experiences, personal characteristics and job characteristics. The outcomes of these intentions are increased performance, reduced absenteeism, and reduced turnover (Steers, 10 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1977). This model takes the general form of expectancy theory, according to which employee behaviors are the result of valued rewards. Expectancy theory is a motivational model that uses the exchange concept in explaining the individual decision-making processes of membership and performance (Graen, 1969; Lawler, 1973; Porter & Lawler, 1968; Vroom, 1964). Expectancy theory predicts that individuals will engage in behavior that they perceive as eventually leading to valued rewards. Theorists agree that at least two general components surface in this individual decision-making process. The first is the value of the outcomes or rewards associated with a line of behavior. The outcome can be perceived as having value in itself or because of its instrumentality in achieving other valued ends. The second major variable is expectancy. Expectancy refers to the individual’s subjective perception that effort will lead to performance. By contrast, instrumentality refers to the individual’s subjective estimate of probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes or rewards (Scholl, 1981). Perceived Organizational Support In research involving favorable job conditions and perceived support, it was found that in order to meet their socioemotional needs and to assess the organization’s inclination and willingness to recognize their efforts, employees develop global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organization values their contribution and cares about them and their well-being. This is defined as perceived organizational support (POS) (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004; Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986). An 18-item measure of job conditions was developed by Eisenberger (1997) in order to test the effect of the organization’s discretionary control over job conditions on 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. POS. As expected, it was found that the effect of the favorableness of job conditions on POS was moderated by the effect of perceptions concerning the extent to which the organization had discretionary control over job conditions (Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli, & Lynch, 1997). Those employees who perceived their organization as having control over job conditions felt more supported as a consequence of the favorableness of job conditions (Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli, & Lynch, 1997). In the legal profession, perceived organizational support is manifested through opportunities to learn and advance through challenging assignments, client contact, coaching, and feedback (Giovannini, 2002). Once associates are in the door, the biggest retention challenge focuses on career opportunities such as mentoring, access to key assignments, exposure to rainmakers, and most importantly, to clients (Giovannini, 2002). According to Giovannini (2002), the root causes of this challenge are many and complex. They include the fact that, despite the myth of the meritocracy, the mentoring and sponsorship opportunities that give some attorneys an edge exist in every firm (2002). Since as humans, individuals are all most comfortable with people like themselves, the chances are great that partners—typically Caucasian men—will gravitate toward associates most like themselves—other Caucasian men (Giovannini, 2002). As a result, for attorneys of color, the perception of equitable opportunities is the most challenging. The issue of institutional perceptions affecting career opportunities for minorities is not limited to industry. In education, the call has emerged for the continuing diversification of school and university faculty to meet the growing diversification of the 12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. student body (Moss, 2000). However, while the number of minority students is increasing considerably, the number of minority faculty is not keeping pace (Moss, 2000). As a result, concerns in the world of academia that significantly make an impact on the representation of diverse faculty are directly related to hiring, tenure and promotion (Jackson, 1991). Garcia (1993) believed universities in general, and schools of education in particular, held a rather skewed perception of people of color and the field of multicultural education. According to Garcia (1993), a conclusion can be drawn about education officials’ general perceptions of people of color. Minorities are viewed as prime candidates for staffing courses and minority student advisors even though they were invited to join departments to meet other responsibilities. Because of these perceptions, minority faculty are rarely given support for research, publication or presenting at national meetings. As a result, they have less of an opportunity to be promoted or gain tenure than White, Anglo-Saxon older males (Garcia, 1993). This has resulted in minorities selecting other fields in which to pursue their careers other than academia. One intriguing piece of anecdotal evidence supporting the statement above is that African-Americans who received doctoral degrees in computer science over the past decade have overwhelmingly chosen (approximately 90 %) industrial rather than academic careers (Freeman & Aspray, 1999). Speculation is that companies have done a better job than universities at making diversity an integral part of their organizational values and salaries are better. 13 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Stereotyping and discrimination based on ethnic origin or race continues to exist across national lines as well as industries. In Canada, the professions in the built environment industry, which includes architects, engineers and related fields, are faced with perceptual challenges regarding Black and minority ethnic (BME) professionals that have created obstacles to progress for those individuals. In 2004, a report was researched and written for Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment by a research team led by the Centre for Ethnic Minority Studies, Royal Holloway University of London and funded by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister of Canada (CABE, 2005). Through interviews with industry management and BME professionals, a portrait emerged that highlights a number of barriers to progress as a result of stereotypes and differing perceptions. BME professionals interviewed generally indicated that they did not receive equal recognition and/or rewards for equal work when compared to their White counterparts (CABE, 2005). This, in turn, affected their ability to be recognized and to minimize or eliminate doubts or concerns about their professional competency and organizational progress. The same phenomenon also exists in the skilled trades and apprenticeship fields where preconceived notions about the racially- or culturally-based capabilities and competencies of minorities can have a highly stressful impact on these individuals (CAF- FCA, 2004). Further, it was found that as a result of this impact, the pressure upon BME professionals may be significant enough to result in constructive discharges from their employment or training (CAF-FCA, 2004). To the extent that they fuel discriminatory behavior, these preconceived notions may represent important causes of barriers to apprenticeship access for members of minority groups. 14 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The inability of industry managers and supervisors, due to lack of skills and understanding to manage an increasingly diverse workforce combined with existing perceptions and stereotypes, affected the ability and opportunities of BME professionals to establish themselves and their abilities (CABE, 2005). Additionally, the ineffectiveness and/or absence of managerial support resulted in not only a lack of opportunity for industry success, but also added to negative perceptions regarding BME professionals involving their perceived lack of ambition (CABE, 2005). The issues referenced above combine to create a type of image that serves as a double-edged sword and represents a multi-faceted problem, and its negative consequences are manifested in a number of different ways. Some BME professionals have attempted to utilize this to their advantage while others who did not want to stand out attempted to minimize their “visibility” by trying to fit into their environment (CABE, 2005). For BME professionals, these perceptions resulted in a feeling of alienation and ostracism combined with their feelings of being a “pioneer” not only for their ethnic group, but also for all BME professionals (CABE, 2005). Procedural and Distributive Justice The perceptions involving the lack of an environment for success and BME professionals needing to work harder than their non-minority counterparts are representative of primary factors that result in minority employee attrition. According to Luminis (2004), a human resource consulting firm, two of the causes of staff turnover are supervisor support and procedural and distributive justice. Supervisor support involves the ability of supervisors and managers by way of his/her human relations skills to facilitate feelings of support and sponsorship for employees (Luminis, 2004). In many 15 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. cases, employees who display greater levels of job satisfaction and commitment have supervisors who act as a buffer against job stress by displaying support of those employees (Luminis, 2004). Additionally, a low perception of supervisor support is one of the major determinants of an employee’s intention to leave his/her organization (Luminis, 2004). Procedural justice and distributive (pay) justice affect the individuals' perceptions of equity (Luminis, 2004). Equity or “fairness” issues are particularly relevant since the research indicates that if employees perceive inequity in the workplace, then they will be more likely to leave the organization (Luminis, 2004). In companies where there is a perceived lack of procedural justice, there may be a need to focus on existing policies and practices which are seen as being unfair, specifically those related to pay and promotion (Luminis, 2004). Policies and practices which involve staff in decision making processes will contribute to a feeling of ownership and fairness amongst employees (Luminis, 2004). This would also be expected to lead to increased job satisfaction and organizational commitment resulting in lower attrition rates. If perceptions surrounding procedural and distributive justice are negative, an employee is far more likely to leave a company (Luminis, 2004). Both factors, which affect employees' perceptions of equity, are embodied in organizational human resource and management practices and processes. These practices and processes are a critical determinant of a person’s perception of fairness and equity. Equity or “fairness” issues are particularly relevant since, if employees perceive inequity in the workplace, they will be more likely to leave the organization (Luminis, 2004). 16 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Satisfaction According to Eisenberger (1997), the perception of organizational support is imparted by the natural tendency of employees to personify their organization and to ascribe anthropomorphic or humanistic traits to it. Positive organizational support represents the extent of perceived support received that emerges from the global actions of the organization’s agents directed toward individual employees (Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli, & Lynch, 1997). Organizational support is realized by means of two types of job conditions: intrinsic satisfying (IS) and extrinsic satisfying (ES) job conditions (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). Some job conditions appear to reflect the intrinsic aspects of the task (e.g., “opportunity for challenging tasks,” “variety and adventure”), while others are clearly tied to extrinsic aspects (e.g., “physical working conditions,” “work schedule”) (Eisenberger et al., 1997). The distinction between IS and ES tasks has long been proposed by motivation theorists (e.g., Herzberg, 1966; Moorman, 1993), but has also been consistently found in the assessment of work values. The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic work values is the most widely accepted (e.g., Ben-Yoav & Hartman, 1988; Dagenais, 1998). This classification corresponds to two main types of rewards an employee may receive on the job. The first category of rewards is intrinsic to work activities because it derives directly from the very nature of work experiences and contributes to a sense of personal growth. (Ben-Yoav & Hartman, 1988; Dagenais, 1998). Examples of intrinsic work values are feeling of competence, use of one’s ability, and personal responsibility. The second category of rewards includes tangible external 17 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. reinforcers, such as pay, benefits, and relationships with supervisors, peers, or subordinates (Ben-Yoav & Hartman, 1988). Favorable job conditions, regardless of what they are, should be interpreted by employees as a sign that their organization cares about them and values their contributions, and thus should be significantly related to positive organizational support (Eisenberger et al., 1997). IS job conditions contribute to a sense of value and personal growth, and thus are rewarding by themselves while ES job conditions provide feelings of comfort (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Following the principles of social exchange, both IS and ES job conditions provide signs that the organization is caring about the fate of its employees (Blau, 1964). Relationship between favorableness of IS job conditions and perceived supervisor support is a function of perceived supervisory control over IS job conditions. By their nature, IS job conditions may elicit feelings of positive organizational support because they provide opportunities for personal growth and development, which is rewarding (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). In a similar vein, favorable ES job conditions (e.g., pay raises, promotion) provide tangibles that are valued by employees because they increase their feelings of comfort at work (Eisenberger et al., 1997; Eisenberger, Rhoades, & Cameron, 1999; Guzzo et al., 1994). Hence, the favorableness of ES job conditions also is related to positive organizational support. Just as employees form global beliefs concerning the extent to which their organization values their contribution and cares about them, they may develop parallel perceptions of the extent of support received from their supervisor (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). It was predicted that, because IS job conditions are more symbolic 18 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and intangible in nature, their favorableness would enhance perceptions of support from both organizations and supervisors (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). In contrast, the allocation of favorable ES job conditions is more of an organizational business. Indeed, (a) rules and policies are established at the organizational level that provide the guidelines for offering ES job conditions; and (b) other individuals than the supervisor (e.g., human resource professionals) are involved in determining ES job conditions (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). Consequently, the supervisor may not have enough decision latitude to allocate favorable ES job conditions based on his or her own principles. Consistent with this view, the favorableness of IS and ES job conditions exerted a significant longitudinal effect on positive organizational support (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). In a related vein, the favorableness of IS job conditions alone was found to have a significant effect on positive supervisory support when positive organizational support was removed (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). On the one hand, it is likely that if employees perceive their organization as being responsible for or having discretionary control over their job conditions, the favorableness of job conditions would result in a stronger sense of positive organizational support (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). On the other hand, if they perceive their supervisor as being responsible for or having control over their job conditions, the favorableness of job conditions would lead to a stronger feeling of positive supervisory support. Extrinsic rewards generally are distributed on a collective basis in organizations (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). For example, pay raises or career advancement 19 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. opportunities generally follow organizational policies and rules that apply uniformly to workers. As a result, employees would be less sensitive to the discretionary control of their organization/ supervisor over ES job conditions because this discretionary treatment does not involve personalized actions that are specifically directed toward them, as it is the case with favorable IS job conditions. Employees rely on their inferences regarding the origin of favorable IS job conditions to determine their perceptions of support from the organization and immediate supervisor (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). Additionally, employees build separate feelings of positive organizational support and positive supervisory support, depending on the extent to which they attribute discretionary control over IS job conditions (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). IS/ES and Socioemotional Needs The understanding of IS/ES has practical implications for the manner in which managers and organizations deal with the socioemotional needs of employees (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). First, providing employees with such favorable IS job conditions as opportunities for personal accomplishment and challenging tasks appears to be more important in terms of support given to employees than the development of comfortable ES job conditions, such as pay raises and opportunities for promotion (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). Second, employees tend to feel more indebted to their organization (or supervisor) when they perceive that the organization (or the supervisor) voluntarily offers them favorable IS job conditions (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). Finally, because employees rely on their attributions regarding the source of favorable IS job conditions to determine their feelings of support, they will tend to reciprocate to the perceived “donator” (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). If 20 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the donator is the organization, they will presumably wish to stay longer with it. Organizations and supervisors would be well advised to manage IS job conditions in such a way that the work outcome to which they give high priority (e.g., retention, performance) is most likely to occur (Vandenberghe & Stinglhamber, 2004). Similarity-Attraction Paradigm Many factors affect employee success in organizations. One of the critical elements for career success is the presence of an influential mentor and/or network of influential relationships (Dreher & Cox, 1996). Unfortunately, many times minorities are not afforded an opportunity to develop the mentor/mentee relationships. This is primarily due to the fact that individuals tend to develop close relationships with those with whom they share similar socialization, values and ideals (Stockdale & Crosby, 2004). This is described as similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, 1971). There is a natural bias and preference that individuals have for those with whom similar characteristics are shared (i.e., age, race, gender, attitudes, etc.) (Byrne, 1971). Cultural influences shape not only a manager’s perspective, but also tend to give him/her something in common with those who share those influences (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). By virtue of this paradigm, interactions with similar individuals tend to be very comfortable and desirable (Byrne, 1971). As a general rule, the most influential executives in corporations tend to be White males. Because of this, Blacks are generally at a disadvantage in developing such relationships (Stockdale & Crosby, 2004). The similarity-attraction paradigm has other organizational impacts. Organizations tend to become homogeneous as a result of it (Schneider, 1987). Recruiting and retention are impacted by it in that employees tend to work for and remain 21 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. with organizations where they “fit in.” As indicated earlier, because most senior organizational executives tend to be White males, there is a natural bias to attract and select other White males in hiring (Schneider, 1987). Minorities tend to be more attracted to organizations where a diverse workforce is represented (Stockdale & Crosby, 2004). Each year national magazines that target the minority population such as Black Enterprise, Hispanic Business, Asian Enterprise Magazine, and others, focus upon the best places in America for their respective readers. Organizations that are touted as best places for minorities to work generally have heterogeneity as a core aspect of their work environment. As a result, senior leaders must be sensitive to similarity-attraction paradigm and its potential impact upon personnel and staffing decisions. Equity of Treatment Good managers should have a healthy distrust for generalizations that extends all the way to race and ethnicity (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). If it is believed by employees that management’s actions are related to generalizations involving race and ethnicity, there will be negative perceptions surrounding equity of treatment for those employees. Management’s goal should be to help every employee move towards self- actualization in their professional lives. If management is aware of the cultural influences that shape his/her perspectives, then he/she can guard against generalizations and concentrate on creating environments for success. Those environments will focus upon finding the strengths of each employee and turning those strengths and talents into measurable performance (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). This, in turn, allows each employee to play their unique role within the organization to the fullest (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). 22 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. However, if senior leadership, generally White males, give into the natural tendency to seek out individuals who share their socialization and cultural tendencies, this will inevitably lead to a perceived inability to relate to the talents of those minority employees, thus affecting the ability to help those employees develop their individual skills and strengths (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). This, in turn, has the potential to contribute to those employees failing to effectively achieve their goals and reduces their ability to contribute to the organization (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). External Resources and Support There are many challenges surrounding retention of minority professionals. For this reason, there are many organizations whose focus is that of support to corporations and firms wanting to either develop or improve inclusive work environments and support minority professionals in their career development. The Consortium for Graduate Study in Management is dedicated to promoting diversity and inclusion in American business. Through an annual competition, The Consortium awards merit-based, full-tuition fellowships to America’s best and brightest diverse candidates. In conjunction with member schools, sponsoring companies, and an elite group of MBA students and alumni, The Consortium fosters inclusion and encourages diversity in American business (http://www.cgsm.org/l. To encourage more minority presence at senior levels across all areas of finance, the Robert A. Toigo Foundation recruits the best and brightest minority students pursuing finance-related careers. Potential sponsors for the Foundation are shown how their contributions are used for a host of career developmental activities including, but not limited to, financial support, mentoring and professional development, career counseling, 23 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. http://www.cgsm.org/l continuing education programs, leadership training, and a host of formal and informal networking opportunities (http://www.toigofoimdation.org/toigofoundation/home.htm). Minority professional associations are also serving as resources for organizations searching for retention solutions. The National Association of Asian-American Professionals (NAAAP) is an organization where Asian American professionals across the country work together to enhance leadership in careers and the communities through professional development by way of panels, workshops and seminars (NAAAP, 2005). The National Society of Hispanic MBAs recently launched a program called Leadership IQ with the Murphy Leadership Institute to help prepare seasoned M.B.A. graduates for more-senior roles (NSHMBA, 2005). The National Association of Hispanic Journalists (NAHJ) is dedicated to the recognition and professional advancement of Hispanics in the news industry (NAHJ, 2006). Its goals involve organizing and providing mutual support for Hispanics involved in the gathering or dissemination of news, furthering the employment and career development of Hispanics in the media, and fostering a greater understanding of Hispanic media professionals' special cultural identity, interests, and concerns (NAHJ, 2006). At its 1995 convention, Hispanic newspaper journalists completed a survey of early career influences and attitudes on advocacy that showed a previously unexamined area of conflict for many Hispanic newspaper journalists directly related to perceptions of support (NAHJ, 2006). The respondents' primary suggestion for increased recruitment was mentorships with working professionals for students (NAHJ, 2006). The National Association of African-Americans in Human Resources (NAAAHR) is another organization that focuses upon the professional development of 24 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. http://www.toigofoimdation.org/toigofoundation/home.htm individuals in this profession. NAAAHR’s mission is to increase the presence of African American professionals at all levels, in all industries and throughout all regions. Professionals across the country work together to enhance leadership in careers and the communities through networking and professional development by way of local chapter events including meetings, workshops and seminars and national conferences (http ://www.naaahr.org/). These are but a few of the minority professional organizations whose individual efforts and partnerships with companies and organizations are designed to assist minority professionals in successful career development. However, even with the availability of these resources, it is companies, corporations, and institutions who must implement practices and procedures to ensure effective retention of minority employees within their hierarchy. Further, employees must perceive that the organizations that employ them are committed to and supportive of their success and inclusion. Summary In order to meet socioemotional needs and assess the organization’s willingness to recognize their efforts, employees develop global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organization values their contribution and cares about them. For minority employees, this has a greater importance due to historical treatment by non-minorities. Minorities still report that they have different experiences in the workplace than Whites, believe that they are less accepted than their White counterparts and report less career satisfaction and tended to be rated lower than their non-minority peers. While equal opportunity and affirmative action has opened organizational doors and provided increased access for minority professionals, organizations have been 25 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. http://www.naaahr.org/ struggling with how to ensure an environment for success for those individuals that would facilitate retention of these individuals. Further, the combination of stereotypical assumptions, automatic trait associations, similarity-attraction paradigm, procedural and distributive justice and other factors have contributed to homogeneous organizational demographics and a tendency to favor those whom are representative of the dominant demographic. This, in turn, has resulted in a self-fulfilling prophecy affecting the way that minorities have been treated inside organizations and their perceptions of that treatment. The perceived treatment includes mentoring, access to key assignments, exposure to rainmakers and sponsorship, and most importantly, to clients. These are some of the factors contributing to a wide range of attrition issues ranging from seeking career opportunities with organizations perceived to display positive organizational support to constructive discharges. Across racial and ethnic lines, there have been perceptions by minority employees of inequity in both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic satisfaction in job conditions provides for personal growth and development opportunities while extrinsic satisfaction in job conditions results in tangible benefits such as pay increases and career advancement. While the review suggests that extrinsic satisfaction ranks as a significant factor in minority retention, it also suggests that it is believed that if favorable intrinsic and extrinsic job conditions exist, there is indebtedness to their organization and an obligation to reciprocate back to the organization. This is manifest through greater performance and higher retention. While the review provided data reflective of the environments and institutions referenced, the information referenced in the preceding paragraphs is indicative of 26 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. numerous related examples surfaced during the literature review. Further, the literature review suggests a strong relationship between perceptual disparities and minority attrition. While the preceding studies are reflective of the environments and institutions referenced, this study traces trends across various industries and organizations to ascertain whether the organizational commitment of minority employee is affected by perceptions of equitable treatment between minority and White employees for equivalent work effort and product. Chapter 3 describes the quantitative methodology used in this study. 27 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter presents a discussion of the research design and rationale, data collection methods, data analysis process, research reliability and validity issues, and the ethical considerations used in this study. Research Design and Rationale A concurrent nested design was used in the study, in which a qualitative phase was embedded within a predominantly quantitative study. This approach was used to “confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings within a single study” (Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann, & Hanson, 2003). The mixed-method design in this study uses quantitative and qualitative in the data collection and analysis to answer the research questions (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). Survey research was preferred in this study for numerous reasons including “rapid turnaround in data collection” (Creswell, 2003, p. 154). The advantages of survey administration included the ability, with limited resources and expenditures, to simultaneously reach a large number of respondents, allowing multiple uses of the data, and the measurement of several variables (Depoy & Gitlin, 1994). The use of survey instruments to a large population was both convenient and cost-effective, especially in the professional associations. Additionally, given the focus of the research, there were 28 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. significant advantages to the ability to analyze a smaller population and generalize to a larger population (Creswell, 2000). Data Collection The study collected both qualitative and quantitative data by using a survey instrument. The two types of data were collected at the same time by the survey instrument. In the instrument design, priority was given to quantitative data collection and analysis, augmented by open-ended questions to add clarity, scope and breadth to the analysis. Convenience sampling was used for this study because of availability of the participants and the opportunity for the researcher to gather a diverse sampling of minority professionals in an expeditious matter. This approach was selected because of the limited resources available to the researcher to conduct a larger study. The characteristics (i.e., minority professionals) of the population of interest were specified, then individuals were located who match those characteristics (Trochim, 2001). The survey administration sites included professional events held by the local chapters of national minority professional organizations and members and guests were invited during group association meetings to participate in completing the survey. The surveys were disseminated by the researcher at the meetings to maximize the response, and great effort was made to assure all respondents that their individual responses would be held in absolute confidence. Table 1 presents the data collection matrix. 29 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 1 Data Collection Matrix Data Collection What Who Number of Participants Survey Instrument Questionnaire Likert Scale, Closed/ Open-Ended Questions Professional Association Members 150 Demographic information A cover page, “Consent to Participate in a Research Study,” detailing the purpose of the study, was distributed with each survey. The cover page also stated that, by completing the survey, the participants were granting their consent for the confidential use of the information obtained from the survey (see Appendix A). After the participants completed the surveys, they placed them in envelopes and then placed them in containers at the event or mailed them to the researcher. All responses were confidential and no names were associated with any particular response Instrumentation The survey used in this study is an adaptation of a standardized faculty survey developed by the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) at the University of California at Los Angeles. It is used to examine numerous issues including, but not limited to, the relationship between work-life issues, and overall satisfaction with regard to a number of issues including, morale and likelihood to leave with specific analysis comparisons by sex and race/ethnicity. The adapted survey for this study is intended to ascertain the experiences and perceptions of minority professionals in order to determine the quality of their work lives 30 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and to determine their organizational commitment related to perceptions of equity of treatment. The survey is composed of twenty-two items encompassing eight broad dimensions of work life identification: Job Components/Performance Evaluation, Intra- Organizational Relations, Working Conditions, Demonstrated Organizational Values, Personal Perspectives, Morale, Future Plans and Demographic Information. Using a likert-like scale, respondents were asked to indicate, their satisfaction regarding a given item and the importance they attached to the item in seven of eight categories (see Appendix B). A number of statements were included to determine the level of satisfaction respondents have with their jobs and the level of their morale as a result of their experience in their respective organizations. Respondents agreed or disagreed with the statements (example: l=Strongly Disagree, 3=Neutral, and 5=Strongly Agree) and indicated an overall perception of their treatment related to organizational values and satisfaction with their organization (example: l=Never, 3=Often, and 5=Very Frequently) and morale (example: l=Very Low Morale, 3=Undecided, and 5=Very High Morale). Future plans were also elicited by asking respondents to indicate how likely they were to stay in their current position, stay in their organization, stay in their career/profession, leave to retire, and to seek a new job in another organization (example: l=Not at All, 3=Undecided, and 5=Very Likely). A number of items involving demographic information (such as level of responsibility, years of service in the organization and in their present position, type of organizational industry, pay range, race/ethnicity, national origin, gender, supervisory/ managerial responsibility, age) were included to enable the researcher to determine (1) 31 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. whether the survey respondents were representative of the population, and (2 ) whether perceptions of work life differed by demographic groups. In order to allow for comparisons between groups, racial/ethnic categories were used on the instrument. For example, groups such as African-Americans are a subset of the category "Black, non- Hispanic"; Japanese-Americans and Filipino-Americans are subsets of the category "Asian or Pacific Islanders." Participants The participants in the study consisted of members of minority professional organizations. Access approval was received from local association chapter presidents or their designated representatives. The specified professional associations presented in Table 2 served as the research sites. The researcher anticipated a minimum sample size of 150 participants. The criteria for selection of participants were based on: (1) self- identification as an individual of non-White descent, and (2 ) a member of the professional organizations listed in Table 2. The professional associations provided a population significant enough to obtain sufficient data for the investigative study’s purpose. Table 2 displays the sites and participants. Table 2 Sites for Subjects Location Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado Sites Conference of Colorado Association of Association Minority of Black Transportation Journalists Officials National Association of African- Americans in Human Resources African- American Leadership Institute 32 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Data Analysis Returned surveys were analyzed by using a statistical software program, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), to present measures of central tendency. This analysis includes the transformation of raw data into tables appropriate to the analysis to facilitate interpretation. Inductive coding was used in the analysis of the qualitative data received from the open-ended questions. The primary purpose of the inductive approach was to allow research findings to emerge from the frequent, dominant or significant themes inherent in raw data (Thomas, 2003). The reasons for using an inductive approach were “(1) to condense raw text data into a brief, summary format; (2 ) to establish clear links between the research objectives and the summary findings derived from the raw data and (3) to examine the underlying structure of experiences or processes which are evident in the raw data” (Thomas, 2003, p. 1). The analysis involved starting with analyzing data gathered from the survey instrument and formulating specific observations and measures, resulting in a detection of patterns and regularities. From this analysis emerged the development of some general assumptions regarding the data (Trochim, 2001). Data reduction was used to select, simplify and transform the qualitative data gathered from the surveys, allowing the development of final assumptions (Miles, 1994). Once the data was received, certain categories were collapsed to provide a more global view of the data being examined (i.e., “Agree” and “Strongly Agree,” “Disagree” and “Disagree” and “Strongly Disagree”). This approach also allowed easier trend analysis during the study. 33 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Validity and Trustworthiness The survey instrument used for this study was adapted from a diversity climate survey developed at the Higher Education Research Institute (HER!) at University of California at Los Angeles. HERI’s survey was adapted from a diversity climate survey previously developed at University of California at Berkeley. The survey questions have been tested and continue to demonstrate content validity (Mayhew & Grunwald, 2006). The survey measured a variety of constructs relating to diversity (e.g., beliefs about diversity, perceptions of institution’s commitment to diversity, etc.) (Mayhew & Grunwald, 2006). In preparation of the study, the researcher was very careful to ensure that all actions related to aspects of the project had been reviewed by two other individuals, both senior doctoral senior researchers. One is a researcher with expertise in the quantitative methodology and the other is a professional in the area of human resources management and organizational development. Both reviewers are individuals cognizant of issues related to diversity and employment. Both researchers reviewed the study’s methodology; including, the data source, participants and sites, data collection methods, data analysis process, and research reliability and validity issues. Ethical Considerations Ethical factors and practices were extremely important in this research study and an integral part of this project. Informed consent ensuring that no participants were placed at risk was paramount (Bailey, 1982). Because of the focus of the research study, attention to issues surrounding invasion of privacy was a priority (Bailey, 1982). The American Sociological Association’s Code of Ethics (1997) served as an operational 34 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. guideline to ensure study credibility and integrity. Additionally, the researcher successfully completed the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) program, “Instruction in The Protection of Human Research Subjects” which was required by Colorado State University (CSU) and obtained approval by the CSU Human Research Committee prior to the dissemination of the survey instruments. 35 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 4 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the relationship between dimensions of fairness and the propensity for a certain response by minority professionals. The study examined the notion of a connection between perceived factors of fair treatment and its influence on the organizational commitment of minority professionals, specifically as evidenced by a predisposition to leave the organization. From an analysis of survey data, implications were drawn as to how study participants perceived their job performance and its value by their organizations. Demographics of the Participants To obtain a demographic portrait of the participants, questions HI 6-22 of the survey instrument solicited demographic information (race, income, length of employment, etc). From the self-identified demographical data on race, it was revealed that the largest number of participants were Black, non-Hispanic at 82 %. Six (6 ) (4.9 %) were American Indians or Alaskan, 3 (2.5 %) Asian or Pacific Islander, 82 (67.2 %), 9 (7.4 %), Hispanic, and 3 (2.5 %) White, non-Hispanic. Nineteen (15.6%) respondents declined to identify their race or ethnic group. Females represented 46.7 % (n=57) of the respondents and males 48.4 % (n=59); 4.9 % (n=6 ) of those surveyed did not identify their gender. The self-identified ages of 36 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the participants included: 5.7 % (n=7) between 21-30, 16.4 % (n=20) between 31-40, 3 4 .4 % (n=42) between 41-50, 34.4 % (n=42) between 51-60, and 7.4 % (n=9) as 61 or older; 1 .6 % (n=2 ) did not identify their age. The participants identified themselves as minority professionals with varying lengths of service within their organizations. They included senior management (n=32, 26.2 percent), middle management (n=28, 23.0 %), functional managers/department heads (n=29, 23.8 %), middle executives (n=12, 9.8 %), and junior executives (n=12, 9.8 %). Nine respondents (7.4%) did not disclose their level of responsibility within their organizations. Respondent Organizational Longevity Organizational longevity was analyzed to determine the tenure of respondents with their respective organizations. Eighty-seven (71.3 %) respondents had been at their organizations between one to 10 years. The lowest number of years of service belonged to respondents who had been with their organizations 16-20 years (n=5,4.1 %). A breakdown of the length of service for all participants is detailed in Table 3. Table 3 Respondents ’ Length o f Service with their Organizations Respondents Frequency Percent 1-5 years 63 51.6 6-10 years 24 19.7 11-15 years 12 9.8 16-20 years 5 4.1 21-25 years 10 8.2 26 years or more 6 4.9 Total 120 98.4 Non-Respondents 2 1.6 Total 122 100.0 37 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Industry Typology The respondents were employed by various organizations in the public and private sectors. As shown in Table 4, respondents affiliated with the private sector represented 56 % of the surveys received. Thirty-nine percent (n=47) of respondents were employed in the public sector and 5 % of respondents did not disclose their organizational affiliation. Table 4 below provides a further breakdown of industry typology. Table 4 Organizational Affiliation by Typology Industry Typology Frequency Percent Public Sector 43 35.2 (Government) 2.5Public Sector 3 (Social Agency) .8Public Sector 1 (Social Service) 14.8Private Sector (Small 18 Organization (1-100) 4.9Private Sector (Midsize 6 Organization 101-999) 18.9Private Sector (Large 23 Organization (1000+) 2.5Private Sector 3 (Manufacturing/ Industrial) .8Private Sector 1 (Service) 3.3Private Sector 4 (Not-for-Profit) 10.7Private Sector 13 (Professional) 94.3Total 115 Non-Respondents 7 5.7 Total 122 100.0 38 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Respondent Pay Ranges Table 5 details the annual monetary compensation received by respondents. More than 20 % earned between $25,000 and $49,999. and approximately 50 % earned between $50,000 and $99,999. Public sector respondents accounted for 38.5 % (47) of surveys completed and private sector respondents represented 55.7 % (69). Table 5 Respondent Pay Ranges Income Frequency Percent Less than $24,999 5 4.1 $25,000-49,999 25 20.5 $50,000-74,999 32 26.2 $75,000-99,999 33 27.0 $100,000-149,999 15 12.3 $150,000 and above 7 5.7 Total 117 96.7 Non-Respondents 5 3.3 Total 122 100.0 Retention by Industry In Table 6 , industry typology is cross tabulated with predisposition to depart. The objective of this analysis is to determine to what extent, if any, there are differences between public and private sector respondents in terms of their choice to leave their organizations. 39 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Survey item 14 asked, “One year from today, how likely are you to leave your organization for another job?” A cross tabulation of industry typology by predisposition to leave the organization for a new job revealed that twice as many private sector respondents (n=21,17.2 %) indicated they would depart the organization as opposed to public sector respondents (n=10, 8.2 %). This information is displayed in greater detail in Table 6 . Table 6 Cross-tabulation o f Industry and Predisposition to Leave Q_14 Leave the Organization for a New Job Q_18 Industry Typology “Unlikely” to “Not- at-AII” “Undecided” “Likely” to “Very Likely” Total Public Sector 23 12 10 45 Private Sector 31 13 21 65 Total 54 25 31 110 Non-Respondents 12 Total 54 25 31 122 Perceptions and Retention An analysis of respondent perceptions is presented in “Analysis by Research Questions.” This section addresses (1) how employers’ perceptions influenced the retention and/or attrition of minority professionals and (2 ) negative perceptions involving equity of treatment displayed in differing reactions to that treatment. The perceptions of organizational valuing were addressed by quantitative questions in the survey instrument 40 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sections A through F. The predisposition to depart their organizations was addressed by quantitative and qualitative questions in sections D through G. Analysis by Research Questions The participant responses specific to research question #1 involved questions that were quantitative in nature, located within the first six sections of the survey instrument. The questions address respondent perspectives involving rewards and recognition, intra- organizational relationships, organizational values, moral and future plans as a result of responses to the preceding questions. Research Question #1: How strongly do these perceptions influence minority professionals to remain or depart from their organization? Personal Perspectives Regarding the Respondents ’ Organization. Several survey questions were posed in an effort to obtain personal perspectives regarding how the respondents felt about their organizations in order to gain insight into their workplace predilection. In response to question #E9, “There’s not much to be gained by staying with this organization indefinitely,” 55 % (n=67) indicated that they either “Disagreed” or “Strongly Disagreed,” 26.2 % (n=32) either “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed,” and 18.9 % (n=23) indicated that they were “Neutral” on this statement. When asked question #E10, “Given my personal/professional circumstances, it is not feasible for me to consider leaving the organization now, 25.4 % (n=31) indicated that they either “Disagreed” or “Strongly Disagreed,” 44.3 % (n=54) either “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed” while 28.7 % (n=35) indicated a “Neutral” position on this statement, and 1 .6 % (n=2 ) of participants did not respond to this question. 41 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Intra-Organizational Relations Respondents’ predilection for their organizations was further explored through an analysis of intra-organizational relations. In response to the examination of respondents’ perceptions of fair treatment within the work units, 18.9 % (n=23) indicated that they were either “Unsatisfied” or “Very Unsatisfied,” 67.2 % (n=82) responded they were “Somewhat Satisfied” to “Very Satisfied” with their treatment, 12.3 % (n=15) indicated a “Neutral” position on this question and 1.6% (n=2) of participants did not respond to this question. In response to question #D7 involving treatment as a result of race/ethnicity, 19.7 % (n=24) indicated they were either “Unsatisfied” or “Very Unsatisfied” with their treatment within their organizations. In contrast, 57.3 % (n=70) indicated that they were either “Satisfied” or “Very Satisfied,” 12.3 % (n=15) indicated a “Neutral” position, while 10.7 % (n=13) did not provide an answer to this question. Analysis by cross-tabulation involving fair treatment by race and ethnicity and predisposition to leave the organization showed that 27.9 % (n=34) indicated that they were either “Satisfied” or “Very Satisfied” with their treatment. A small group, 7.4 % (n=9) of individuals, responded that they were either “Unsatisfied” or “Very Unsatisfied” with their treatment related to their race/ethnicity. Those individuals were either “Likely” or “Very Likely” to leave the organization for a new job. Table 7 presents a further breakdown of these data. 42 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 7 Illustration o f Treatment by Race/Ethnicity related to Predisposition to Leave Q3 Treatment as a result of my race or ethnicity Q 14 Leave Your Organization for a New Job Not at all Unlikely Undecided Likely Very Likely Total Very Unsatisfied 2 2 1 0 3 8 Unsatisfied 1 5 3 0 6 15 Neutral 2 4 4 2 3 15 Somewhat Satisfied 7 14 7 4 3 35 Very Satisfied 6 7 10 7 2 32 Total 18 32 25 13 17 105 Non-Respondents 17 Total 18 32 25 13 17 122 Demonstrated Organizational Values The extent to which respondents experienced equitable treatment inside their organizations specific to the practice of two organizational values, fairness and tolerance was addressed in Section D of the survey. On the subject of fairness, 51.6% (n=63) indicated that this value was practiced either “Frequently” or “Very Frequently” while 21.3 % (n=26) indicated that their organizations practice this value “Occasionally.” Approximately 24 % of respondents (n=30) provided a response of “Neutral” in this area. On the subject of tolerance as it relates to inequitable treatment, 54.1% (n=6 6 ) indicated that this value was practiced either “Frequently” or “Very Frequently,” and 25.4 % (n=31) provided a response of “Neutral” in this area. Morale and Future Plans The examination of respondent experiences specific to being valued, their commitment to the organization and plans involving a future with their organizations was addressed in Sections F and G of the survey. The majority of respondents (n=63, 51.6 %) 43 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. indicated that their organization valued its minority employees while 16.4 % (n=20) indicated that they either “Disagreed” or “Strongly Disagreed” with the same statement. On the subject of organizational commitment, a strong majority, (n=98, 80.4 %) 80.4 % (n=98) either “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed” that they were committed to their organizations. Dissenting respondents accounted for 9.9 % (n=12) of total respondents, indicating either “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree” in their responses. When a cross­ tabulation was performed involving the organizational valuing of minority employees and organizational commitment (questions #F12 and FI3), the following was revealed: 50.8 % (n= 62) either “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed” with both statements and 8.2 % (n=10) of individuals either “Disagreed” or “Strongly Disagreed.” This is represented in Table 8 Table 8 Organizational Valuing o f Minority Employees/Commitment to Organization Q 12 My orgn values its minority employees Q 13 I am committed to my orgn Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree Total Strongly Disagree 2 0 0 0 1 3 Disagree 0 8 2 5 2 17 Neutral 1 1 7 20 8 37 Agree 0 0 1 16 13 30 Strongly Agree 0 0 0 8 25 33 Total 3 9 10 49 49 120 Non-Respondents 2 Total 3 9 10 49 49 122 Consequences of Negative Perceptions and Organizational Membership The survey questions regarding the consequences of negative perceptions and organizational membership involved responses specific to research question #2. The 44 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed in response to this research question. The questions address respondent perspectives involving organizational values, organizational commitment, predisposition to depart, rewards and recognition, intra-organizational relationships, organizational values, morale and future plans as a result of responses to the preceding survey questions. Research Question #2: What behavior response is likely to occur should the individual remain with the organization and this perception continue? Table 9 presents data related to respondent attitudes towards leaving the organization when encountering negative perceptions of how they are valued by the organization. Respondents who either “Disagreed” or “Strongly Disagreed” on the value of organizational commitment and who were either “Unlikely” to or would “Not at All” consider leaving the organization represented 33.6 % (41) of respondents. In contrast, 13.1 % (n=16) who either “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed” on organizational commitment were either “Likely” or “Very Likely” to consider leaving the organization. Additionally, “Neutral” responses on the subject of minority employee valuing constituted approximately 18 % (n=22) of the responses. 45 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 9 Respondents ’ organizational valuing and commitment related to retention Q 9 There’s not much to be gained by staying Q 14 Leave your organization for a new job Not at all Unlikely Undecided Likely Very Likely Total Strongly Disagree 11 11 2 2 1 27 Disagree 5 14 12 5 0 36 Neutral 2 5 7 3 5 22 Agree 1 5 6 2 6 20 Strongly Agree 2 0 1 2 6 11 Total 21 35 28 14 18 117 Non-Respondents 5 Total 21 35 28 14 18 122 Research Question #3 was, Are the levels and type of perceptions of inequities, which affect retention consistent across organizational typology? A cross tabulation of survey question #18, “Which of the following most closely describes your industry?” and #14, “Leave your organization for a new job,” revealed the following: Ten (10) public sector employees, (22.2% of public sector respondents, 8.2% of total respondents) and twelve private sector employees (18.5% of private sector respondents, 9.8% of total population) indicated that it was either “Likely” to “Very Likely” that they would leave their organizations within a year. Survey item #14, which falls under Section G of the survey instrument, asks the question, “Given your responses above . . . . , is preceded by survey questions F #12 (“My organization values its minority employees”) and #13 (“I am committed to my organization”). This provides the context for the responses received in Item #14. The cross-tabulation of those responses is illustrated in Table 10. 46 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 10 Industry retention related to retention Q 18 Which of the following most closely describes your organization’s industry? Q 14 Leave your organization for a new job Not at all Unlikely Undecided Likely Very Likely Total Public Sector 8 15 12 4 6 45 Private Sector 12 19 13 9 12 65 Total 20 34 25 13 18 111 Non-Respondents 11 Total 20 34 25 13 18 122 Open-Ended Question Responses The analytical process for these data involved inductive coding in an attempt to allow research findings to be ascertained from the frequent, dominant or significant themes inherent in raw data (Thomas, 2003). Data obtained from the survey instrument were analyzed resulting in specific observations and the detection of certain patterns. Further review resulted in some basic assumptions emerging regarding the data. (Trochim, 2001). Data gathered from open-ended questions (D 7a, E 11, and F 15) in survey sections D through F were analyzed in order to gain insight and clarity of the underlying dynamics to the responses presented in Table 9. The analysis included placing responses similar in nature under headings that reflect the tenor of the comments. Several themes emerged from the data analysis. The themes included (1) overt displays of inequity of treatment and (2) responses to the inequity of treatment. These themes are supported by several quotes to illustrate the extent of feelings associated with each theme. Sixteen (16%) percent (n=20) of survey respondents reflected themes of unequal treatment, which they indicated were based on their race and ethnicity. Comments 47 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. included limited understanding by supervisors of minority culture and communities with no apparent desire on their part to attempt to learn or be receptive. This lack of understanding by employers reportedly resulted in different rates of evaluation and advancement of minority candidates. The quotations in Table 11 are representative of the sentiments expressed by respondents. Table 11. Underlying Dynamics to Respondent Perceptions Theme Respondent Comments Perceptions of Overt Displays of Inequity of Treatment (Respondent Statements). “People take one look at my skin color and form assumptions. I must also be prepared to over­ perform. ” “Standards were raised whenever minorities began to climb the corporate ladder. ” “African-Americans are evaluated differently from majority employees because of perceptions of Blacks. Whites rarely praise the performance of African-Americans. ” “I have had an experience with a manager who had too low expectations of me because of my race. ” “I experience racism every day on some level. So you just deal with it and really pay it no mind. ” “I have not experienced inequitable treatment in present organization, although I have experienced it in all other newsrooms where I have worked. ” “There is the perception that a manager’s predisposition, because of race, resulted in lowered expectations for me. lam a minority professional with a Master of Library Science degree and one year towards the requirements for a doctorate. I observed that a new White college graduate with a four-year degree was paid $11,000 more than I was. The organization has four Black professionals out o f3000 employees. Management states they want to hire, but say they 48 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. just can’t find any Black professionals ”. “(There is) limited understanding by su